Research on crowd behaviour

Research on crowd behaviour On April 11 2001 Ellis Park Stadium in Johannesburg was filled beyond capacity as people rushed to purchase football match tickets. Police and security officials struggled to contain the crowd and a stampede occurred. The crush resulted in around 250 injuries and 43 deaths. (Mason, 2001) Crowd behaviour can be surprising when individuals join a group and behave in a manner which is out of character. This was certainly the state of affairs in this case, as the behaviour displayed that night was not characteristic of South African soccer spectators. (Ngoepe and Semenya, 2002) The question therefore arises as to what influences the behaviour of the crowd. This discussion will consider the factors affecting individuals once they are part of a group by applying the study of crowd behaviour specifically to this case. Research, theories and debates will be considered along with the implications this all has for social psychology in the future. From Le Bons perspective, this stampede is a classic example of crowd behaviour, where individuals lose their sense of self and responsibility by being anonymous members of a crowd, and are susceptible to contagion and suggestibility. The LeBonian and Freudian view of the crowd as pathological and abnormal (Ngoepe and Semenya, 2002) is reinforced in this case as members trampled over others in a bid to save themselves. (Mason, 2001) Le Bon proposed that basic, primitive instincts then arise, making violence and anti-social behaviour more likely. (Hogg and Vaughan, 2008) And violence most certainly ensued in this situation. Gates were ripped apart, many places around the stadium were being vandalised and several people were consequently crushed to death. (Ngoepe and Semenya, 2002) What both Le Bon and Freuds theories overlook however is the importance of the social dynamics of the event. They give no consideration to grievances and social conflicts (Reicher, 2001), nor do they take into account the inter-group relations between the police/security and the crowd. In this case, the stampede began when the untimely announcement was given to several thousand people who had travelled from all over the country that tickets for the event were sold out. (Ngoepe and Semenya, 2002) The Final Report states that this was one of the causes of the tragedy. It is therefore important to consider further explanations of crowd behaviour. Festinger, Pepitone and Newcombes research (1952), and Zimbardos Stanford Prison Study (****) placed great emphasis on anonymity and concluded that deindividuation was a key factor in violent behaviour and loss of self awareness.(Hogg and Vaughan, 2008) It is difficult in this case to measure levels of anonymity however. Other theorists later revised this model as a result of research (Postmas and Spears, 1998, Diener, 1980) and Reicher at el (2001) argue that the individual doesnt lose his identity in the crowd but takes on a new social identity. This is an important point for this case as it implies that an individuals behaviour and perspectives will be determined by the type of group that is involved. Reicher (2004) identifies that the values and standards of a crowd of Catholics will be very different from a crowd of soccer supporters This begins to address the suggestion in the case study that this wouldnt have happened at a cricket or rugby match. But does this mean disasters a re inevitable in football crowds? Turner and Killians Emergent Norm Theory (****) changed the approach to crowd behaviour by identifying the presence of norms that emerge from within the crowd which are deemed to be goal orientated (Hogg and Vaughan, 2008) Indeed, the crowds goal was to secure a place to watch the football match and this could have led to the crush. Social Identity Theory begins to consider wider factors affecting the crowd and addresses the conflicts that may occur between groups which was a considerable factor in this case. Police and security personnel, in keeping with Le Bons view of the crowd as primitive, base and ghastly (Le Bon 1908), were deemed to be hostile to the spectators and displayed a general disrespect for their dignity. (Ngoepe and Semenya, 2002) The preconceived views of security personnel may have served to further escalate the situation and to increase feelings of aggression in crowd members. (Stott and Reicher, 1998) Social psychologys theories on aggression can also be drawn u pon to further elaborate on the event but the purpose of this discussion is to deal primarily with collective behaviour. The Elaborated Social Identity Model identified two conditions whereby the crowd may resort to violence and aggressive behaviour either an out group behaves in a way that is deemed as unfair or unwarranted, or others act in a way that prevents the crowd doing what they feel is legitimate. (Reicher 1996) And both of these conditions seem to be present in this situation. The crowd were prevented from accessing the stadium and they were subject to tear gas and aggressive conduct. (Ngoepe and Semenya, 2002).The focus appeared to be on crowd control rather than safety. (Mason, B 2001) The question therefore arises as to whether football crowds are thought of and treated differently to other groups by police, security and event planners. Social psychology plays a vital role in explaining crowd behaviour and later theories are particularly useful for the fact that they consider wider aspects than just the crowd itself. They acknowledge that the crowd does not behave in isolation but is subject to influence from the environment and other groups. Theories regarding anonymity were difficult to apply in this case but needed to be considered for the influence they have had on other theorists. It is interesting to note that both LeBons and Freuds view of the crowd was mirrored by security personnel. This is a key factor which needs to be considered further by event planners, police and security companies. Indeed, it is imperative that these groups gain a better understanding of crowd behaviour in order to prevent future mistakes and disasters. Whilst it is easy to adopt the view of the crowd as an aggressive mob, it is very inaccurate to do so. Not only is it inaccurate, it is dangerous and potentially life-threatening. (Re icher et al, 2004) During this discussion, questions have been raised which remain unanswered. They lead to the identification of areas in need of further research in the field of social psychology: namely crowd types, particularly football crowds; stewards and crowds; preconceived ideas about football crowds; inter-group dynamics and collective aggression. Whilst acknowledging that research on crowds can be difficult to implement, it is vital that further research is undertaken to prevent a repeat of this disaster.

127 Hours Essay

127 Hours is the true story of mountain climber Aron Ralston’s remarkable adventure to save himself after a fallen boulder crashes on his arm and traps him in an isolated canyon in Utah. Over the next five days Ralston examines his life and survives the elements to finally discover he has the courage and the wherewithal to extricate himself by any means necessary, scale a 65 foot wall and hike over eight miles before he can be rescued. Throughout his journey, Ralston recalls friends, lovers, family, and the two hikers he met before his accident. Outdoor adventurist Aron Ralston believes he’s invincible and can do it all alone while on his outdoor adventures. He considers the great outdoors his second home. On Saturday, April 26, 2003, Aron has gone for an adventure trek alone through the generally secluded Blue John Canyon, and like he has done on many of his other treks, he has not told anyone where he is going. But on this day, he and a small boulder fall down a crevi ce, he landing near the bottom of the crevice virtually unharmed, but with his right hand wedged between the boulder and the crevice wall. He has access to his gear and his small supply of rations as he tries to move the boulder or chip away at it so that he can get his wedged hand free. As either task seems impossible, he hopes for someone to rescue him. Those most likely candidates are Kristi and Megan, two women he met earlier that day who are the only two who know that he is in the canyon, or his boss Brion, who may list him as missing if he doesn’t show up for his scheduled work time on Tuesday (three days away). As time goes on and he deals not only with the boulder and lack of rations but also with the extreme weather conditions, he begins to think about his mortality, his mind often going toward his loving but somewhat distant relationship with his family, or his last broken love with a woman named Rana. As he films himself (as a goodbye message to his family) often with his mind wandering, he, during his more lucid moments, also thinks about the possibility of trying to sever his arm as he will lose it a nyway if he survives this ordeal. On April 2003, the engineer, climber and canyoneer Aron Ralston travels to Blue John Canyon without telling anyone to spend the weekend doing what he likes to do: climb the isolated canyon. He meets the teenagers Kristi and Megan that are lost and they spend a couple of hours together bathing in a lake in a cave. He says goodbye to them and while descending a canyon crack, a chockstone comes loose rolling onto his arm. Aron realizes that he is stuck and he tries to find a way to release the stone. Along five days short of water and without food, Aron becomes delusional and recalls his family and friends. After the fifth day, he decides to sever his forearm to survive.

Digital Divide Essay

Digital divide refers to the gap between people with effective access to digital and information technology, and those with very limited or no access at all. A total of 161 countries were examined over the 1999-2001 period to identify the determinants of cross-countries disparities in personal computers and internet penetration. Basically digital divide exist because of socio economic factors, geographical factors, educational, attitudinal and generational factors. A further gap between the developed and underdeveloped world in the uptake of technology is evident within the global community, and may be of even greater significance. Digital divide is classified under four (4) successive types of access: Motivational, physical, skills and usage is observed. A shift of attention from physical access to skill and usage is observed. In terms of physical the divide seems to be closing in most developed countries, concerning digital skills and the use of applications the divide persists. Developing countries are lagging behind in digital library research and development, due to the digital divide as well as the lack of appropriate resources required for search and development. As a result users in developing world are being deprived of digital library services. Global library development can be used by users in developing countries: subject gateways, digital reference services, free access to e-journals and e-books in many areas, also educating individuals about digital divide and also the internet. Having disconnected areas be connected to the network and distributing free useful devices e.g. laptops, phones etc to be up to date. www.emeraldinsight.com/journal.htm?articled=867166&show=abstract[->0] www.sciencedirect.com www.springlink.com/content/ [->0] – http://www.emeraldinsight.com/journal.htm?articled=867166&show=abstract

The Chrysanthemums By John Steinbeck - 1177 Words

Steinbeck had strong supports for many themes in his short story, â€Å"The Chrysanthemums†. One theme that started the poem and ended the poem was the theme of isolation. It was clear that Elisa felt alone through her entire life, even when she was with her husband. She did not feel a connection with him, but she did feel a connection with her chrysanthemums. Elisa was so isolated from everything around her that she found a true earthly connection with flowers. She was excited whenever she could talk about them or they were brought up. No matter what situation it was she wanted to talk about her flowers. This theme of isolation was repeated when she stopped talking to the stranger about her chrysanthemums and again at the end of the story.†¦show more content†¦Now that the lonely setting his set, Steinbeck brings characters to the reader to show their loneliness: â€Å"Elisa Allen, working in her flower garden, looked down across the yard and saw Henry, her husband, talking to two men in business suits,†. Elisa is the main character of this short story, and where the center of loneliness will swirl around. Although Steinbeck does not blantely state that Elisa feels lonely, but it is highly considerable that she is quite lonely while she looks down at her husband. Steinbeck then adds repetition within his story, â€Å"Elisa watched them for a moment and then went back to her work,†, â€Å"She looked down toward the men by the tractor shed now and then,†, â€Å"Elisa cast another glance toward the tractor shed,†. Elisa wants her husband to be near her and want to be with her. She knows that she will not get this because of how distant they are from each other. This distance from the first they are introduced, foreshadows what type of relationship these two have. Their marriage is cold, dark, and distance; all tones Steinbeck has used in this short beginning of the story. Obviously, since Elisa has this type of relation ship, she feels lonely, and this where the theme all begins. Her only type of connection with the outer world is through her chrysanthemums: â€Å"Her face was eager and mature and handsome; even her work with scissors was over-eager, over-powerful,†. She was excited about tending to her flowers every year. While some